Comparing Old New Terrorism Free Essays

Presentation 1.1 Background In the commencement to the furthest limit of the twentieth century, eminent researchers thought of another idea of ‘New Terrorism’ which speaks to a move from the conventional fear based oppression. The ‘new terrorism’ ‘refers to a subjective change in the idea of fear based oppression, which has supposedly occurred during the 1990s’ (Kurtulus 2007:476). We will compose a custom paper test on Looking at Old New Terrorism or on the other hand any comparable point just for you Request Now This worldview has likewise been differently alluded to as ‘contemporary terrorism’ (Laqueur 2003) ‘post-present day terrorism’, ‘super-terrorism’, ‘catastrophic terrorism’ and ‘hyper-terrorism’ (Field 2009). This thesis plans to attempt the assessment of this change in outlook. It means to look at the different sources if there is without a doubt a ‘New Terrorism’ as solicited by certain researchers and strategy creators. It would do this by doing a contextual investigation of Irish Republican Army, or the IRA and Al Qaeda speaking to each gathering. 1.2 Aims and Objectives In this segment, the examination points, targets, and exploration addresses will be plot. Right off the bat, the point of this exploration is as per the following: To guarantee that this point is completely investigated, the accompanying examination destinations have been formulated: How are the developing types of psychological warfare unique in relation to the customary strategies By what method should the current counterterrorism framework be altered so as to address the difficulties of the advanced age 1.3 Research Questions The exploration question is as per the following: What are the new types of fear based oppression and what elements made them What are the key factors that have added to the achievement of these new fear based oppressor rehearses Is the current counterterrorist framework equipped for managing the rising fear monger danger To try to investigate this point, research question and these destinations, a survey of the writing will be attempted to investigate these zones have encountered change after some time. The discoveries from this survey will be utilized to investigate and analyze the exploration point, targets and question. To guarantee this is properly attempted the accompanying subjects will be talked about in the audit: 1.4 Scope of the Study An investigation of the Irish Republican Army will be embraced in contrast with the cutting edge tasks of the perceived psychological militant office Al Qaeda. 1.5 Structure of the Study This investigation will be involved 6 segments including the presentation, writing survey, and system, contextual investigation examination, Discussion, Conclusion. 2 Literature Review The segment will survey significant writing as respects the proposed research. 2.1 Defining Terrorism and rising types of Terrorism 2.2 Factors that added to Terrorism’s Success 2.3 Current anticipation and requirement choices 2.4Trends 3. Technique This section outlines the examination system utilized just as giving a short early on entry with respect to the importance of exploration procedure. 3.1 Introduction The system centers around a clarification of the subjective and quantitative examination approaches considered for this postulation to address the accompanying inquiries: How are the rising types of fear mongering not the same as the customary techniques In what manner should the current counterterrorism framework be changed so as to address the difficulties of the cutting edge age This incorporates the components of the examination approach embraced and the explanations for this decision. 3.2 Methods of Data Collection Auxiliary sources dating from the activity of the Irish Republican Army just as year to date tasks of Al Qaeda will give the necessary scope of information for evaluation. 3.2.1 Case Study Analysis Yin (2009) fights that the contextual analysis examination methodology is a substantial instrument for giving experimental substance. This strategy for research takes into consideration an examination concerning this present reality effect of fear mongering. Others fight that the contextual analysis isn't generally the best vital examination approach (Baxter and Jack 2008). Nonetheless, Stake (1995) exhibits that a contextual analysis can give comprehension and increment the limit with regards to comprehension. The methodology for this exposition will use a subjective, interpretative exploration strategy; a contextual analysis assessment of the Irish Republican Army and Al Qaeda. Yin (2009) shows that the exploratory contextual investigation strategy can be utilized to look at circumstances in which there is no characterized result. This exploration will lay on the objective to distinguish difficulties and exercises for future. For the reasons for this examination, the subjective exploration approach is increasingly appropriate because of ability to survey the wide running nature the fear monger conditions. Contextual investigation This segment will introduce a contextual investigation assessment of the Irish Republican Army in contrast with the tasks of Al Qaeda. 4.1 Irish Republican Army arrangement factors Ryanair and (another carrier of your decision) 4.2 Effectiveness of the IRA techniques 4.3 Al Qaeda development factors 4.4 Effectiveness of the IRA techniques 4.5 Trends 4.8 Discussion (Tie the contextual analysis to the writing survey) 5. End 7. References Baxter, P. what's more, Jack, S. 2008. Subjective contextual analysis system: Study plan and execution for amateur specialists. The Qualitative Report, 13 (4), pp. 544â€559. Field, A. 2009. The ‘New Terrorism’: Revolution or Evolution?. Political Studies Review, 7 (2), pp. 195â€207. Kurtulus, E. 2011. The â€Å"new terrorism† and its faultfinders. Studies in Conflict Terrorism, 34 (6), pp. 476â€500. Laqueur, W. 2003. No limit to war. New York: Continuum. Stake, R. 1995. The specialty of contextual analysis research. Sage Publications, Inc. Yin, R. 2009. Contextual investigation research. Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications. The most effective method to refer to Comparing Old New Terrorism, Essay models

Pyrrhic Victory - Origin of the Term

Pyrrhic Victory - Origin of the Term A Pyrrhic triumph is a kind of win that really dispenses such a great amount of demolition on the successful side that it is fundamentally equivalent to overcome. A side that successes a Pyrrhic triumph is considered eventually successful, yet the tolls endured, and the future effect those tolls, work to discredit the sentiment of genuine accomplishment. This is here and there alluded to as a ‘hollow victory’. Models: For example, in the realm of sports, if group A thrashings group B in an ordinary season game, however group A loses its best player to a season-finishing injury during the game, that would be viewed as a Pyrrhic triumph. Group A won the momentum challenge, anyway losing their best player for the rest of the period would detract from any genuine sentiment of achievement or accomplishment that the group would normally feel after a triumph. Another model could be drawn from the front line. In the event that side A thrashings side B in a specific fight, however loses a high number of its powers in the fight, that would be viewed as a Pyrrhic triumph. Indeed, side A won the specific fight, yet the losses endured will have extreme negative impacts from Side A going ahead, bringing down the general sentiment of triumph. This circumstance is usually alluded to as â€Å"winning the fight however losing the war.† Root The expression Pyrrhic triumph begins from King Pyrrhus of Epirus, who in 281 B.C., endured the first Pyrrhic triumph. Ruler Pyrrhus arrived on the southern Italian shore with twenty elephants and 25,000-30,000 officers prepared to protect their kindred Greek speakers (in Tarentum of Magna Graecia) against propelling Roman control. Pyrrhus won the initial two fights that he took an interest in upon appearance on the southern Italian shore (at Heraclea in 280 BC and at Asculum in 279 BC). Nonetheless, over the span of those two fights, he lost an exceptionally high number of his officers. With his numbers cut radically, King Pyrrhus’s armed force turned out to be too slight to even consider lasting, and they in the long run wound up losing the war. In both of his triumphs over the Romans, the Roman side endured a bigger number of setbacks than Pyrrhus’ side did. In any case, the Romans likewise had an a lot bigger armed force to work with, and consequently their losses implied less to them than Pyrrhus’s never really side. The term Pyrrhic triumph originates from these staggering fights. Greek student of history Plutarch depicted King Pyrrhus’s triumph over the Romans in his Life of Pyrrhus: â€Å"The armed forces isolated; and, it is stated, Pyrrhus answered to one that gave him delight of his triumph that one other such triumph would completely fix him. For he had lost an extraordinary piece of the powers he carried with him, and practically the entirety of his specific companions and head officers; there were no others there to make enlisted people, and he found the confederates in Italy in reverse. Then again, as from a wellspring constantly streaming out of the city, the Roman camp was rapidly and copiously topped off with new men, not in any manner subsiding in mental fortitude for the misfortune they continued, however even from their very displeasure increasing new power and goals to go on with the war.†

Major regions of the brain and their functions on behavior Essay

The mind is an unpredictable structure that is partitioned into particular parts or locales that perform specific capacity. The significance of specialization and mind parts division isn't just in cerebrum handling data and producing reactions, yet the particular effect on conduct of an individual created by each specific part. In such manner, the mind has three primary locales: cerebral cortex, limbic framework and the cerebrum stem (Charles, 2002). The mind stem is the most crude piece of the cerebrum that is situated at the joint where the spinal string enters the mind (Charles, 2002). This piece of the mind contains such sub-parts as reticular movement framework, medulla and the Pons. The principle capacity of this piece of the cerebrum is for autonomic capacities considered as fundamental for endurance, for example, wellbeing, nourishment, safe house and security looking for practices. For example, when an individual becomes sick, the cerebrum stem triggers off the strategy to look for medicine or human services, therefore such an individual will move towards the clinic premises than to some other heading of nourishment or security. The cerebral cortex is cerebrum area that is on external part that covers the mind (Charles, 2002). By prudence of covering the mind, the cerebral cortex is considered as the biggest piece of the cerebrum. The conduct capacity of the cerebral cortex includes higher psychological procedures, for example, memory process that improves language, thought and learning. Thusly, practices, for example, execution in scholastic work, capacity to hold and recall, verbal familiarity and discourse improvement are controlled and created by the cerebral cortex. Limbic framework (Charles, 2002) is the third district of the cerebrum with structures, for example, hippocampus, thalamus, amygdale and nerve center. This piece of the mind is answerable for enthusiastic related practices of people, for example, inspiration, memory capacities, and physiological capacities. For example, amygdale is liable for practices, for example, outrage, dread and animosity. The hippocampus sub-structure includes the elements of memory, for example, data coding and preparing into present moment and long haul recollections. Nerve center is answerable for enthusiastic practices, for example, hunger, sexual emotions, parched and proliferation practices. The tactile procedure as these situations unfurls The procedure and activity of hitting the ball creates a breaking sound that heads out through air to the ears as a sound tangible organ. The sound message is gotten and passed on by ears tactile nerves to the focal sensory system (CNS). The focal sensory system consequently starts nerve drive to send the message to the mind. In the cerebrum the thalamus situated inside the limbic framework got the message through tangible receptors found in fringe sensory system and afterward advances the message to the cerebral cortex for investigation and understanding and afterward produce input message to the sight tactile organs (Albert, 2002). After translation of the of the ball sound in the mind by the cerebral cortex, the message is created back through a similar road that to the thalamus that will send drive to the sight tangible organ: eye. The eyes muscles will be associated with a reflex activity to modify and focus on the ball that has been hit. Thusly, ball development is followed by the eye. Nonetheless, since the eye doesn't have the ability to get the ball separated from watching it; the sight tangible nerves inside the eyes make an impression on the cerebrum to plan vital instrument to get the ball (Albert, 2002). When the message has been produced by the sight tactile nerves to the cerebrum, the mind through thalamus gets the message through the tangible receptors found in fringe sensory system and afterward advances the message to the cerebral cortex for investigation and translation. After investigation and understanding, the cerebral cortex sends back the message to thalamus which thus animates the concerned organs through capable synapses to plan muscle activity to get the ball as it land. The planning of the ball is totally an activity and is dependant on psychological capacities of the people (Albert, 2002). Reference Albert, B A. (2002) Molecular Biology of the Cell: New York, Garland. Charles, GM. (2002), Psychology: A presentation: New York, Prentice corridor.

The Dynamics Of Prosecuting Attorneys. Prosecuting Attorneys

The Dynamics of Prosecuting Attorneys Prosecuting attorneys have been enforcing law and order for many years, trying criminal cases while representing local, state, or federal governments. They interview witnesses and victims, look at police reports, and do legal research to plan prosecutions for cases. After the information is collected, it is used in court to present a case against the defendant. Most of the time cases are begun by reviewing police reports and conducting research. To be able to be successful in this field you have to know how to conduct research and be excellent at problem solving. (â€Å"Prosecuting†). Before getting into the dynamics of a prosecuting attorney, the history of this career is important and should be told.†¦show more content†¦There are some barriers before starting law school. Before you are accepted into the law school of your choosing you must pass the Law School Admission Test (LSAT). To become a prosecutor, you have to earn a bachelor’s degree and a Juris Doctor Degree. After finishing law school, you have to pass the states bar exam. Passing the bar exam is the only way to get a license to practice. (â€Å"Prosecuting†). Potential prosecutors should focus on criminal law while earning their degree. Criminal law is a system of law that is devoted to the punishment of people who commit crimes. â€Å"In general, Criminal law asks and answers three questions: 1. Did an individual commit a crime? 2. Which crime did an individual commit? 3. Does the individual have a defense?† The way each state prosecutes criminals is different because each state has its own criminal code. Which means each state decides what punishment is appropriate for each crime. Criminal codes vary greatly among state and federal government. Some statues resemble the common law criminal code, but others, like the New York Penal Law, almost mimic the Model Penal Code (MPC). Common law is when law is taken from judicial decisions instead of from written law. Model Penal Law was influential work that played a very important part in the revision and process of arranging laws. (â€Å"Criminal†). Prosecuting attorney have one of the toughest careers. In court they representShow MoreRelatedPsychological Secrecy And The Death Penalty Analysis1566 Words   |  7 Pagesconcrete [building]† where prisoners are left to suffer in unbearable conditions (Stevenson, 53). With few privileges and far from home, McMillian was not able to have contact with his family or know what was happening surrounding his case. Racial dynamics were influential in the process of the case. There was collision between judges and prosecutors about the venue for the trial. The trial was moved to Baldwin County, a white county where only one African American served as a juror. 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Characteristics Of An Effective Communicator - 1831 Words

Every person has different learning outcomes when they complete a class. The following Core Assessment will give the reader a full spectrum reflection of my last 8 weeks at class. To better understand my learning outcomes in Human Communication you need to know What are some characteristics of an effective communicator, a before and after evaluation of my communication, and What I have learned in last 8 weeks. After you are done reading this core assessment you will know how much a have improved my communication skills and you might learn couple of new things yourself. Characteristics of an Effective Communicator Going back to beginning of March when I started Introduction to Human Communication class, I had no idea what a good†¦show more content†¦I believe this is the only model available in my tool box when the purpose of communication is to discipline. The second type of communication in the Week 1 Lecture, is Interactive Model which is more of a day to day conversation because of the two-way communication nature, where one of the elements offer a response to the other. Last but not least is the third model which is the Transactional Model this model is a perfect example of the complexity of communication since encompass every single element of communication. This model helped me understand how easy communication can be damage by the environment. The reason I went out of my way to explain the three different model of communication, is because only good communicators with the traits or characteristics that I’m about to describe to you will know which model of communication its being use and will know how to achieved the purpose of the communication. One of my favorites characteristics is GETTING PERSONAL or showing empathy. If you do not make your audience or you if you are the audience care about the message they will not received the message. You need to be interested in the message to be able to provide feedback. In the other hand you need to know your audience to be able to know if the message will interest the other person. J. DeMers, (2016). By knowing your audience, you will be able to retrieved the types of facts to

The Basic Dilemma of the Artist Example For Students

The Basic Dilemma of the Artist Biography We have a corporeal body. It is a physical entity, subject to all the laws of physics. Yet, we experience ourselves, our internal lives, external events in a manner which provokes us to postulate the existence of a corresponding, non-physical ontos, entity. This corresponding entity ostensibly incorporates a dimension of our being which, in principle, can never be tackled with the instruments and the formal logic of science. A compromise was proposed long ago : the soul is nothing but our self awareness or the way that we experience ourselves. But this is a flawed solution. It is flawed because it assumes that the human experience is uniform, unequivocal and identical. It might well be so but there is no methodologically rigorous way of proving it. We have no way to objectively ascertain that all of us experience pain in the same manner or that pain that we experience is the same in all of us. This is even when the causes of the sensation are carefully controlled and monitored. A scientist might say that it is only a matter of time before we find the exact part of the brain which is responsible for the specific pain in our gedankenexperiment. Moreover, will add our gedankenscientist, in due course, science will even be able to demonstrate a monovalent relationship between a pattern of brain activity in situ and the aforementioned pain. In other words, the scientific claim is that the patterns of brain activity ARE the pain itself. Such an argument is, prima facie, inadmissible. The fact that two events coincide even if they do so forever does not make them identical. The serial occurrence of two events does not make one of them the cause and the other the effect, as is well known. Similarly, the contemporaneous occurrence of two events only means that they are correlated. A correlate is not an alter ego. It is not an aspect of the same event. The brain activity is what appears WHEN pain happens it by no means follows that it IS the pain itself. A stronger argument would crystallize if it was convincingly and repeatedly demonstrated that playing back these patterns of brain activity induces the same pain. Even in such a case, we would be talking about cause and effect rather than identity of pain and its correlate in the brain. The gap is even bigger when we try to apply natural languages to the description of emotions and sensations. This seems close to impossible. How can one even half accurately communicate ones anguish, love, fear, or desire ? We are prisoners in the universe of our emotions, never to emerge and the weapons of language are useless. Each one of us develops his or her own, idiosyncratic, unique emotional language. It is not a jargon, or a dialect because it cannot be translated or communicated. No dictionary can ever be constructed to bridge this lingual gap. In principle, experience is incommunicable. People in the very far future may be able to harbour the same emotions, chemically or otherwise induced in them. One brain could directly take over another and make it feel the same. Yet, even then these experiences will not be communicable and we will have no way available to us to compare and decide whether there was an identity of sensations or of emotions. Still, when we say sadness, we all seem to understand what we are talking about. In the remotest and furthest reaches of the earth people share this feeling of being sad. The feeling might be evoked by disparate circumstances yet, we all seem to share some basic element of being sad. So, what is this element? .ub33cecf90fcf87c9cae6e1c970d4e346 , .ub33cecf90fcf87c9cae6e1c970d4e346 .postImageUrl , .ub33cecf90fcf87c9cae6e1c970d4e346 .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .ub33cecf90fcf87c9cae6e1c970d4e346 , .ub33cecf90fcf87c9cae6e1c970d4e346:hover , .ub33cecf90fcf87c9cae6e1c970d4e346:visited , .ub33cecf90fcf87c9cae6e1c970d4e346:active { border:0!important; } .ub33cecf90fcf87c9cae6e1c970d4e346 .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .ub33cecf90fcf87c9cae6e1c970d4e346 { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .ub33cecf90fcf87c9cae6e1c970d4e346:active , .ub33cecf90fcf87c9cae6e1c970d4e346:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .ub33cecf90fcf87c9cae6e1c970d4e346 .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .ub33cecf90fcf87c9cae6e1c970d4e346 .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .ub33cecf90fcf87c9cae6e1c970d4e346 .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .ub33cecf90fcf87c9cae6e1c970d4e346 .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .ub33cecf90fcf87c9cae6e1c970d4e346:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .ub33cecf90fcf87c9cae6e1c970d4e346 .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .ub33cecf90fcf87c9cae6e1c970d4e346 .ub33cecf90fcf87c9cae6e1c970d4e346-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .ub33cecf90fcf87c9cae6e1c970d4e346:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: Albrecht DurerWe have already said that we are confined to using idiosyncratic emotional languages and that no dictionary is possible between them. Now we will postulate the existence of a meta language. This is a language common to all humans, indeed, it seems to be the language of being human. Emotions are but phrases in this language. This language must exist otherwise all communication between humans would have ceased to exist. It would appear that the relationship between this universal language and the idiosyncratic, individualistic languages is a relation of correlation. Pain is correlated to brain activity, on the one hand and to this universal language, on the other. We would, therefore, tend to parsimoniously assume that the two correlates are but one and the same. In other words, it may well be that the brain activity which goes together is but the physical manifestation of the meta-lingual element PAIN. We feel pain and this is our experience, unique, incommunicable, expressed solely in our idiosyncratic language. We know that we are feeling pain and we communicate it to others. As we do so, we use the meta, universal language. The very use or even the thought of using this language provokes the brain activity which is so closely correlated with pain. It is important to clarify that the universal language could well be a physical one. Possibly, even genetic. Nature might have endowed us with this universal language to improve our chances to survive. The communication of emotions is of an unparalleled evolutionary importance and a species devoid of the ability to communicate the existence of pain would perish. Pain is our guardian against the perils of our surroundings. To summarize : we manage our inter-human emotional communication using a universal language which is either physical or, at least, has strong physical correlates. The function of bridging the gap between an idiosyncratic language his or her own and a more universal one was relegated to a group of special individuals called artists. Theirs is the job to experience mostly emotions, to mould it into a the grammar, syntax and vocabulary of a universal language in order to communicate the echo of their idiosyncratic language. They are forever mediating between us and their experience. Rightly so, the quality of an artist is measured by his ability to loyally represent his unique language to us. The smaller the distance between the original experience the emotion of the artist and its external representation the more prominent the artist. We declare artistic success when the universally communicable representation succeeds at recreating the original emotion felt by the artist with us. It is very much like those science fiction contraptions which allow for the decomposition of the astronauts body in one spot and its recreation, atom for atom in another teleportation. Even if the artist fails to do so but succeeds in calling forth any kind of emotional response in his viewers/readers/listeners, he is deemed successful. Every artist has a reference group, his audience. They could be alive or dead for instance, he could measure himself against past artists. They could be few or many, but they must exist for art, in its fullest sense, to exist. Modern theories of art speak about the audience as an integral and defining part of the artistic creation and even of the artefact itself. But this, precisely, is the source of the dilemma of the artist: Who is to determine who is a good, qualitative artist and who is not? Put differently, who is to measure the distance between the original experience and its representation? After all, if the original experience is an element of an idiosyncratic, non-communicable, language we have no access to any information regarding it and, therefore, we are in no position to judge it. Only the artist has access to it and only he can decide how far is his representation from his original experience. .u6447d8ecee935d05175a7e9c35a34423 , .u6447d8ecee935d05175a7e9c35a34423 .postImageUrl , .u6447d8ecee935d05175a7e9c35a34423 .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .u6447d8ecee935d05175a7e9c35a34423 , .u6447d8ecee935d05175a7e9c35a34423:hover , .u6447d8ecee935d05175a7e9c35a34423:visited , .u6447d8ecee935d05175a7e9c35a34423:active { border:0!important; } .u6447d8ecee935d05175a7e9c35a34423 .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .u6447d8ecee935d05175a7e9c35a34423 { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .u6447d8ecee935d05175a7e9c35a34423:active , .u6447d8ecee935d05175a7e9c35a34423:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .u6447d8ecee935d05175a7e9c35a34423 .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .u6447d8ecee935d05175a7e9c35a34423 .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .u6447d8ecee935d05175a7e9c35a34423 .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .u6447d8ecee935d05175a7e9c35a34423 .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .u6447d8ecee935d05175a7e9c35a34423:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .u6447d8ecee935d05175a7e9c35a34423 .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .u6447d8ecee935d05175a7e9c35a34423 .u6447d8ecee935d05175a7e9c35a34423-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .u6447d8ecee935d05175a7e9c35a34423:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: Henri Toulouse LautrecArt criticism is impossible. Granted, his reference group his audience, however limited, whether among the living, or among the dead has access to that meta language, that universal dictionary available to all humans. But this is already a long way towards the representation the work of art. No one in the audience has access to the original experience and their capacity to pass judgement is, therefore, in great doubt. On the other hand, only the reference group, only the audience can aptly judge the representation for what it is. The artist is too emotionally involved. True, the cold, objective facts concerning the work of art are available to both artist and reference group but the audience is in a privileged status, its bias is less pronounced. Normally, the reference group will use the meta language embedded in us as humans, some empathy, some vague comparisons of emotions to try and grasp the emotional foundation laid by the artist. But this is very much like substituting verbal intercourse for the real thing. Talking about emotions let alone making assumptions about what the artist may have felt that we also, maybe, share is a far cry from what really transpired in the artists mind. We are faced with a dichotomy : The epistemological elements in the artistic process belong exclusively and incommunicably to the artist The ontological aspects of the artistic process belong largely to the group of reference but they have no access to the epistemological domain And the work of art can be judged only by comparing the epistemological to the ontological. Nor the artist, neither his group of reference can do it. This mission is nigh impossible. Thus, an artist must make a decision early on in his career: Should he remain loyal and close to his emotional experiences and studies and forgo the warmth and comfort of being reassured and directed from the outside, through the reactions of the reference group, or should he consider the views, criticism and advice of the reference group in his artistic creation and, most probably, have to compromise the quality and the intensity of his original emotion in order to be more communicative.

Benifits of Human Cloning essays

Benifits of Human Cloning essays There are many benefits to the development of human cloning. Cloning of cells and genes has been a foundation in the development of many new drugs. These drugs can benefit many people suffering from heart disease, cancer, diabetes, and many other diseases. There have been many discussions about cloning in agriculture and laboratory animals since the announcement of Dolly. Cloning technology is being used today in agriculture to produce an improved quality and higher yield of fruits and vegetables. Livestock animals have been cloned using the method of embryo splitting techniques. The use of nuclear transfer technology will likely bring more improvements to transgenic livestock animals. The protein in the milk of these animals are being tested for use in humans. Nuclear transfer technology offers the potential of developing many medical benefits. Many biotechnology companies are producing these cloned animals to test life-threatening diseases. Mice can be tested for some of the diseases that affect humans. These treatments can help develop quicker human therapeutics. Using the cloned mice could increase our capability to test new treatments for diseases in humans. Animals are being bred today, whose organs may be transplanted into an individual suffering from an organ failure. Transgenic technology is being used to produce these animals, lessening the likelihood of the organ being rejected by the human patient. This could potentially make an endless supply of transplantable organs such as kidneys, livers, and hearts. Cloning of animals could also improve the efficient production of human medicines. Transgenic technology is being used today to produce therapeutic human proteins in animals milk. The protein is taken out of the milk and used to develop medicines for humans. This could potentially provide many needed medicines to humans. With...

Mid term break by Seamus Heaney and The identification by Roger McGough Essay Example

Mid term break by Seamus Heaney and The identification by Roger McGough Essay Example Mid term break by Seamus Heaney and The identification by Roger McGough Paper Mid term break by Seamus Heaney and The identification by Roger McGough Paper Essay Topic: Poetry Seamus Heaney Poems In this assignment I will be comparing and contrasting two poems, mid term break by Seamus Heaney and the identification by Roger McGough. Seamus Heaneys poem is auto-biographical and he writes about himself experiencing the reality of death via his younger brother. He describes desctrbes his family suffering from greif and struggling to accept the truth. In the identification Roger to describe what seems to be a single Father identifying the body of a boy believed to be his son, Stephan who has been tragically killed by what is described as an explosion. I will be comparing the similarities and differences of these two gloomy poems by using three topics to organize the comparing. The topics are Subject matter, use of language and poetic technique. Firstly I will be comparing the similarities within both poems. The subject matter between both poems are that they portray family grief for example in mid-term break Seamus describes almost all his family members and neighbors showing signs of grief. His father is described a quite a tough man as it portrays him as always taking funerals in his stride. At this point Seamus is unaware of why he has been pulled out of school but we can gather from the previous quote that he has added all the facts together to realize he has come home for a funeral. His mother is also caught grieving when he describes her holding his hand whilst coughing out angry tearless sighs. This quote suggests two things, firstly it uses the adjective angry which suggests that the Mother may be blaming herself for the loss of her son but the reason for this we are not aware of. Secondly it suggests that in her emotional state she has drained herself emotionally and physically of tears to cry. The family grief in the identification is only portrayed by the father as he is the only person we hear of as it is written in first person, however we are aware his talking to whom is believed to be a pathologist because he asks a series of questions which appear to be answered. I believe that his type of grief is the worst as he has no one to grieve with and is suffering quietly and alone which I believe that in time will take could possibly lead to a decline in the mans health. During the poem the father shows a type of grief through his disbelief that the boy is his son. This is shown by all the questions he asks and which he describes and removing all trace of doubt. In both poems struggling to accept the truth is a big factor as both Seamus (mid-term break) and Stephens Father (the identification) both portray struggling to accept the truth over the death of their loved one. Seamus shows this when he enters his brothers room for the first time after arriving home. The scene is described almost heavenly with snowdrops and candles soothing his brothers bedside. A snow drop is a type of flower which blooms in spring and represents the passing of sorrow which explains why this specific flower is used on this occasion. Seamus describes his brother as almost asleep or ill as his face has become paler and this shows us that Seamus wants to believe that his brother is only asleep and will awake at any moment however this is not going to happen. This is him struggling to accept the truth. He also cannot accept the fact that his brother will never live to celebrate another birthday when he write the very last line A four foot box, a foot for every year. This is a very dramatic as he bluntly buts the facts together it also shows us a twist of fate that the box being the same length as the brothers age. In the identification Stephens father is struggling to accept the truth and this is shown when he asks so many questions and by doing this he is hoping to achieve pulling out every splinter of hope. This shows him hoping to find some evidence that this body is not his son and not wanting to believe the facts he has already been portrayed. The last of the similarities in subject matter is confusion. Seamus portrays confusion when he is brought home from school by his neighbors at an unusual time in the school term, he also not aware of the reason why he has been brought home until the last two stanzas of the poem. He also suffers from confusion when he over hears big Jim Evans saying it was a hard blow Im not certain but I am presuming a lot of questions flooded into his head when he over hears this for example What was a hard blow? In the identification Stephens father gets confused in the first stanza about the color of the boys hair which is black but his sons, Stephens, was fair. It becomes apparent after the father queries this fact it becomes apparent that the explosion that killed the boy would of synched the boys hair and caused it to turn black. He also becomes confused when cigarettes are put before him which were found within this boys pockets. This turns the fathers opinion against this boy being Stephen as he believes that he son would never disobey him. But however he continues to examine the exhibits which force him to believe that this body was the body of his son. The use of language between the two poems are also similar as the both have a non-rhyming structure and would both appeal to the same target audience which in this case would be ranging from mid-teens to adults and they would be able to cope with the high number of grief portrayed in these poems. Children under the age of 12-13 would not have the correct maturity level to read a poem like these and may become upset or overly concerned about the people within the poems. There are no similarities in the poetic techniques used in both poems. The poems also differ in the three topics, subject matter, use of language and poetic technique. In mid-term break Seamus Heaneys little brother we believe was killed in a Road Traffic Accident. We believe this because of what Big Jim Evans says in the second stanza it was a hard blow and the bumper knocked him clear. We know that Seamuss brother must have been killed by a motor vehicle as it suggests in the previous quote the bumper knocked him clear as a bumper is a legal necessity to any car, bus and taxi. In the identification we are led to believe that Stephen was killed in some type of explosion as we find out in the first stanza when he is asking the pathologist about the colour of the boys who is lying before him, hair colour as it does not match to his own sons but he is corrected as the explosion wouldve singed his hair black, the explosion. The way the mourners suffer in both poems also differs in both poems. In mid term break Seamus Heaney suffers alongside his family and neighbors until the last stanza when he finally discovers why he has returned home. This scene is dramatic as it is emotional upsetting as is described well so that the reader can picture themselves in his situation. In the identification Roger describes the father suffering alone as he has no other family member to consolidate with or mourn with. He his not completely on his own though as he has the pathologist with him but he however does not show any reassurance and only answers asked questions. The use of language within both poems also range as they both wrote there poems in a different narrative perspective. Mid-term break is written is first person narrative perspective (me, myself and I). This is used throughout the poem in order to create sympathy for Seamus. This narrative perspective is used to its full extent in the second line of the fifth stanza I saw him this short sentence really hits the reader as this is the first time Seamus actually sees his brother during the poem. This sentence also puts the reader in his position and prepares us for a description of what he is about to see. The identification was written is second person narrative so that you, the reader can see eye to eye with the father of Stephen. He does this so we can feel all the emotions Stephens father goes through. In the last line of the poem the readers becomes emotionally upset as we have already gained sympathy for the father therefore do not want him to go through this experience, like we wouldnt want ourselves to go through it so we hope that he does not suffer the loss in the end, but unfortunately he does Thats our Stephen

Community organization as public ministry Essay

Community organization as public ministry - Essay Example A lot of social injustices have been known to occur within the community.   This is mainly caused by those people who refuse to work within the fringes of the law and general principles that uphold the societal values.   For the community to be together, people must recognize that societal values should be encouraged and people brought under proximate grounds to heed these values. Communities that refuse to work together often fail to recognize the advantages these values. Like any other bodies formed to address matters, community organization is known to have both the advantageous and disadvantageous values.   The benefits of community organization include empowering the society by involving the people in a certain area to come together. This gives them the courage to address other injustice. When people come together in the society they have more strength to address a certain issue compared to people who do it individually. Community organization acts as a voice for the voice less in the society. Organizations have been known to develop to benefit the organization members, and other members of the society.   An organization may be developed to address the rights of the handicapped people. With this, they can fight for certain issues to be addressed these handicapped people are still considered as members of the society.Besides the above mentioned advantages, a person who joins a community organization can get the some benefits. One can widen his social and professional networks by meeting new people. One’s skills are set to grow by sharing their ability and the knowledge they have with others. When one joins a group, the main idea is to work to help other people. The disadvantages that may crop up in community organization are few but can be a major challenge in societal development. Community organizations have been known to bring up major conflict of interests. This can be seen in matters where some are for, while others are against a certain issue. A situation whereby people are for the legalization of abortion, and others are not, is a common example of this. Both of the organizations have good reasons but to bring them in level grounded reasoning is difficult. This often divides the society and weakens oneness. For unity to be achieved despite the presence of conflicting organizations, bodies and strategies that address their issues as the neutral party and foster understanding among them need to be adapted. It is only a society that supports one another that there could be mutual understanding and growth.7 Tools to harness social justice in churches Attaining social justice in a church can prove difficult if proper steps are not taken. There are tools

Trends in team building activities Coursework Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Trends in team building activities - Coursework Example In her article, team building is the way to go for any business. For any manager to be considered successful in their leadership roles; they must ensure they have sound, active and well-balanced teams working harmoniously towards achieving the organization’s long-term goals. Look at all successful business institutions, you will discover that the reason behind their fortunes is the composition of thelabor force that is relating well, with each other. Nothing positive can be achieved unless there is a good collaboration among people employed in an organization. She further says that, before any management directs its efforts towards moving the organization to the next level of success, it should ensure it makes team building its first priority. The author either gives examples of the classic Hawthorne Studies of between 1927 1nd 1932, where it was discovered that a group’s results are better compared to the totals of individuals working independently or in 1993, Elton Ma yo seconded this when he found out that a group was essential because of three unique characteristics it owned. They include a feeling of social support, a sense of group identity and cohesion. These characteristics are a strong motivation towards a group or team achieving its goals. The author goes ahead to support her findings of the importance by comparing two generations. That of 1960s that gave little attention to teamwork since most reward systemswasbased on individual performances and that of 1980s, which advocated for teamwork.

Case Study Wilton Petroleum Jelly Essay Example for Free

Case Study Wilton Petroleum Jelly Essay If you were Morris, and if Taylor had been a conscientious employee in all other areas, would you still have fired Taylor for committing theft? Why or why not? If I were Morris I would fire Taylor regardless if he might have been a conscientious employee within the organization. Even though Taylor had the proper knowledge, skills, and abilities that are associated for Wilton Petroleum Jelly he had a negative employee personality for the company. The fact that Taylor displayed unethical behavior by stealing gas and a ten dollar hammer he should be terminated. As in most companies there is a policy that states the theft of company property is grounds for dismissal. The behavior of Taylor determined that he could not be trusted in the company as an employee. Furthermore, the duty of a manger is to enforce the policy of the organization in relationship to its corporate culture. In addition, the fact that Taylor was a good employee for the company did not justify the reason that he committed a crime. Fortunately, Taylor should be glad that he got terminated from the company instead of facing fine or possible jail time. Also, the ten dollar hammer that was stolen validated the grounds for termination within the organization. Taylor tried to take the a hammer that was worth 10 dollars so he should be charge for the hammer along with the fees of the amount of gas that he stole from the company. There is no reason for Taylor to continue to work for the organization since he is clearly taking advantage of the company for his own personal gain. Employee theft is a problem in which a business can lose thousands of dollars per year. According to the authors Thomas, Kimberly, Jones, et al (2001) there was a relationship associated with employee theft and turnover rates in the restaurant industry. In some cases employees that were likely to steal, would to steal if they were leaving in two weeks than leave within a year of an organization. Equally important, in a company one of roles of an organizational psychologist is to try to understand employee behaviors. The knowledge of employee behaviors may eliminate employees from stealing in the future. Thus, Morris should discuss the incident about the theft to Taylor to find out the reason why Taylor stole from the company before terminating him. Next, do you think Taylor got what was coming to him in this case, or was he set up by Morris and thus was a victim of entrapment? Even though Morris did set him up within the company it did not excuse the fact that Taylor committed a crime at Wilton Petroleum Jelly. As in most companies the security department and managers are not capable of watching employees all the time. In some circumstances it is the employees that are the ones that report thefts that occur in most organizations. In the business Taylor knew he was committing a crime by stealing the gas in the company. Likewise, Taylor was not aware that he was being set up for entrapment which occurs in most companies, and there are notifications of video surveillance on the premises of organizations. Morris may have had an ulterior motive in which he was trying to get Taylor terminated. Equally important, Taylor was not terminated for taking hundreds of dollars’ worth of gas he was terminated for the theft of a hammer. Further, there is a possibility that Taylor might not have been terminated had he not stolen the hammer. Taylor was a victim of entrapment but that does not validate his actions of company theft. Taylor may want to argue that he was setup by Morris and he might have not stolen the hammer in the first place. The problem that Taylor would have to present would be his explanation for stealing company property on his own defense. In reference to the author Dekker (2004) in order to terminate an employee fairly and employer needs to have substantial evidence against the employee. The used of devices such as cameras, telephone tapping, are substantial for employee termination. There are companies that invest thousands of dollars on security systems to reduce employee theft within their organization. Therefore, even though Taylor was entrapped he still violated company policy be stealing from Wilton Petroleum Jelly. Also, do you think that spying on the employees with peepholes and cameras to detect theft or other crime violates an ethical business principle? Why do you feel as you do? The spying of employees with though there knowledge is an invasion privacy. On the other hand, there are circumstances where it might be necessary in order to capture employees that commit corporate crimes. In a company employees need to be aware that they are observed within the company. The process of using cameras is a good theft deterrent to save company cost and create a safer workplace environment. Further, ethics should be considered where to draw the line as far as employee surveillance. Unfortunately, in society there are many crimes that occur in the workplace that are more serious than employee theft. There are some organizations in which employees are searched when they come to work and before they leave the company. The organization should try to take all measures to prevent crimes from occurring ethically. The ethical business principles should be within the legalities of the law when it comes to video surveillance. An employee should not have to be viewed through peepholes without there knowledge. A policy needs to be developed in which all cases of surveillance are covered so the employee is well aware they are being watched. There are places that employees should never be observed such as in restrooms which would be considered unethical. The authors Crossen (1993) in most companies the solution to unethical behaviors is the monitoring of and searches of employees. The strategy may come at the privacy of the employee. Finally, the observation of employees should be ethical so that the employees’ rights are not violated. Too, what effect might Taylors dismissal by the company have on other employees? The effects of Taylor’s dismissals will cause employees to think twice about stealing from the organization. Taylor could be used as an example as to what happens when an employee steals from Wilton Petroleum Jelly. In a sense Morris tried his best to prevent stealing from occurring within the business by reporting the actions that happened. The actions of Morris can create a more ethical business because employees will feel as if their being monitored. Morris was determined to try every way possible to reduce unethical behaviors. There are some companies in which a personality test is given in regards to organizational theft. Unfortunately, there are some employees that have to follow the actions of others within a positive or negative manner. The dismissal of the Taylor would most likely be stated to new hires that they could get caught not matter how hard they try to conceal unethical behavior. According to the authors Victor, Trevino, Shapiro, et al (1993) the reporting of a theft by a peer that may have been associated with organizational responsibility, the interest of group associates, and perceptions of justice. Actual reporting of negative behaviors was more likely to occur when peers with retribution of justice. In conclusion, the example of the employee getting terminated from the company may cause prevention. The employees may feel as if they would get caught since they do not know when their being observed within the business. The example of Taylor is beneficial in the prevention of future employee thefts in Wilton Petroleum Company. References Crossen, B. R. (1993). Managing employee unethical behavior without invading individual privacy. Journal of Business and Psychology, 8(2), 227-243. Dekker, A. (2004). Vices or Devices: Employee Monitoring in the Workplace. S. Afr. Mercantile LJ, 16, 622. Thoms, P., Wolper, P., Scott, K. S., Jones, D. (2001). The relationship between immediate turnover and employee theft in the restaurant industry. Journal of Business and Psychology, 15(4), 561-577. Victor, B., Trevià ±o, L. K., Shapiro, D. L. (1993). Peer reporting of unethical behavior: The influence of justice evaluations and social context factors. Journal of Business Ethics, 12(4), 253-263.

Jackie Robinson: Breaking the Racial Barriers Essay -- Robinson Histor

Jackie Robinson: Breaking the Racial Barriers   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  On July 23, 1962, in the charming village of Cooperstown, New York, four new members were inducted into baseball’s Hall of Fame. As they gathered around the wooden platform, the fans reminisced about America’s national pastime. Edd Roush and Bill McKechnie, sixty-eight and seventy-four years old respectively, were two of the inductees that day (Robinson 142). They were old-timers chosen by the veterans’ committee. Bob Feller and Jackie Robinson, both forty-two, were youngsters by comparison. According to the rules of the Hall of Fame, a player must be retired for five years before he can be considered for induction. Both Feller and Robinson were elected in the first year they were eligible (141).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  As Robinson received his plaque to take his place among the greats in the Hall of Fame, he said, â€Å"I’ve been riding on cloud number nine since the election, and I don’t think I’ll ever come down. Today everything is completeâ€Å" (Robinson 142). After the induction ceremony, an exhibition game between the Milwaukee Braves and the New York Yankees was to take place at Doubleday Field, where the sport had its beginnings. A sudden thunderstorm delayed the game, and after an hours wait it was cancelled. At this same time, picketers in the streets of Harlem were carrying signs saying, â€Å"Jackie, we love you as a ballplayer, but not as a spokesman for the Negro raceâ€Å" (143).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Just two days earlier at a banquet in the Waldorf Astoria Hotel in New York City, many people had paid $25 a plate to show their admiration for Jackie as both a ballplayer and a representative of the Negro race as well. Some of the most distinguished figures in the nation were present this day and their praise was loud and long (Mann 187). Jackie had accepted without hesitation a challenge to break a prevailing color barrier in the national sport of America with complete knowledge of how much depended on him. Few men had ever faced such competitive odds when becoming a player in organized baseball. Despite criticism and opposition, Jack Roosevelt Robinson had truly come a long way from his poor beginnings as the grandson of slaves in Cairo, Georgia, to breaking the racial barriers in major league baseball by becoming its first black athlete and achieving hall of fame status. Jackie Robinson’s childhood was a struggle in family and financ... ...s and coaches can now be found in the dugout and a few black managers on third base. However, the great Dodger would most likely have kept pushing to see more racial diversity in baseball, particularly among the executive ranks. The Hall of Fame second baseman was never satisfied with second best. Works Cited Bontemps, Arna. Famous Negro Athletes. New York: Dodd, Mead and   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚     Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Company, 1964 Brown, Avonie. â€Å"Jackie Robinson, Dodgers #42.† The Afro-American   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚     Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Newspaper Company of   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Baltimore, Inc., 1997.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚     Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  http://www.afroam.org/history/Robinson/intro.html Robinson, Jackie. I Never Had It Made. New Jersey: The Ecco Press, 1995. Smith, Robert. Pioneers of Baseball. Boston: Little, Brown, 1978. â€Å"Soul of the Game.† The Sporting News, 2000.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚     Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  http://www.sportingnews.com/features/jackie/ TIME. Great People of the 20th Century. New York: Time Inc. Home   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚     Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Entertainment, 1996 Walker, Sam. â€Å"How Blacks View Sports in Post-Robinson Era.†(cover story)   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚     Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Christian Science Monitor   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  1997: 1 Young, A.S. â€Å"Doc.† Negros Firsts in Sports. Chicago: Johnson Publishing   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚     Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Company, Inc., 1963

An Indigenous understanding of Reciprocity

Reciprocity is an underlying principle expressed throughout Aboriginal societies. Outline and Illustrate the Importance of this fundamental concept In the economic, social, spiritual and political spheres of Aboriginal life (refer to reciprocity In the index to Edwards 2005). The word reciprocity's conjures up a feel good image of ‘caring and sharing' (Schwab 1995: 8). However according to Peterson (1 993: 861) there is a darker more sinister side to this word when applied to Indigenous Australians.He defines it as ‘demand sharing' rather than reciprocity and he states hat Blurter Jones (1 987: 38) labels it tolerated theft. Peterson (1993: 860) goes on to assert that little ‘giving' Is purely altruistic because the giver might simply be protecting themselves from ‘pay-back† if they do not give, or be expecting some mutual benefit. Edwards (2004:76) espouses that white Australians disregarded the reciprocity of traditional territorial rights and misunder stood the code of mutuality in social relationships.They also failed to identify the privileges and responsibilities central to Aboriginal society based on relationship and reciprocity (Edwards 2004: 24). In order to enter a discussion on reciprocity with regard to our Indigenous culture, It must be looked at on two levels. First how reciprocity Is a central principle that has pervaded Aboriginal societies for millennia and secondly the impact that reciprocity with the Western culture has had on this Indigenous community, since the advent of Colonization.The Western way generally requires the borrower to formulate a case of need, whereas the Aboriginal approach is slanted towards the giver having to explain why he cannot give (Schwab 1 995: 8). However there is an increasing recognition that mutual benefit worked better within the Indigenous community when Aboriginals were hunter gatherers than It seems to In today's welfare society. Schwab (1995: title page) leans towards this real ization in his discussion paper short titled â€Å"The Calculus of Reciprocity†, where one could interpret the meaning of ‘calculus' to be the study of changed {mathematical}.He outlines an accepted act of generations of give and take, to one that is gradually changing to take' and either delayed ‘giving back or not at all. In the past the food or other goods ere shared out until they were all gone (Schwab 1995: 3-4) but Increasingly a ‘complex yet subtle calculus Is employed on a dally basis as Individuals decide which expenses (or gifts) require immediate attention and which can be deferred' (Schwab, 1995: 15). Reciprocity influences the political climate of Aboriginal society, especially the law, which was, is now, and always will be.According to Needing, Davis and Fox (1986: 42) an Elder sums it up when he says the Aboriginal Law never changes, â€Å"always stay same† while conversely, Western law Is â€Å"always changing†. There Is an Inte rconnectedness of all things, an agelessness which bears witness that spoilt exists now, as it did before and that creation exists as an historical fact and also has present currency and will into the future. In Colonial times, the principle of reciprocity was enigmatic to the Westerners and a constant source of acrimony – politically, legally and culturally.The Aboriginal philosophy of reciprocity encompassed the idea that if the balance of life was disturbed, there must be a ‘corresponding action' to repair the Imbalance and the status quo must be preserved aboriginal life and this essay will discuss the importance of reciprocity with regard to economic, political, social and spiritual spheres of Aboriginal life, although it is difficult to compartmentalize Aboriginal society due to its complexity, as there is an overlap and interconnectedness in all things.The economy is interwoven with politics, as social life is melded with spirituality. Pre Colonially, the concept of reciprocity had ensured the survival of Indigenous Australian peoples' lifestyle as a distinct economic style for thousands of years (Sermons, H. 2005: 70). In more recent mimes, colonial interference with its autocratic removal and relocation of key individuals and whole groups resulted in virtually a complete collapse of the traditional Aboriginal economy.As hunting and gathering is no longer possible for city dwellers, the concept of reciprocity becomes even more important, from an economic point of view, due to the nature of extended families all co-habiting in one small dwelling because of mutual obligation or reciprocity. According to Smith (1991) household structure has to stretch to encompass the extra-household fiscal networks it now accommodates. One must consider the concept of reciprocity or mutual benefit to obtain an understanding of domestic expenditure patterns.To better understand the impact of reciprocity on a single family, here is an example from the Lacuna c ommunity (Wallpaper people), which is currently representative of many Aboriginal communities (Sheathe, E 2005: 151). This anecdote illustrates how (poor) Aboriginal health is indisputably linked to their economic situation and that reduced eating patterns (feast or famine Schwab 2004: 5) are encouraged by the government welfare system.Elizabeth and David are out shopping for their extended family,4 hen Emily approaches and asks for food explaining her welfare money has run out, she is given quite a large amount of food. Elizabeth explains ‘l like to shop Just before it closes, because there are fewer people here †¦ In the mornings there are too many hungry people waiting for you' (Sheathe, E 2005: 152). This means Elizabethan family will eat well for a few days and then when the food runs out (earlier than intended because she has given some away) they will have to eat sparingly, or not at all, until the next welfare payment.At the same time David has been approached by Steve to use his gun and ammunition. David is reluctant to give up his gun fearing Steve will damage it, but willingly gives ammunition. David says ‘All the time people want things from you. It is no good. ‘ Later Steve returns and gives David a very small proportion of his ‘kill' (Sheathe, E 2005: 1 53); this is representative of a refused reciprocation. Stave's exchange is small because David did not share his gun. In the case of Emily, one can assume that if she has spent her welfare money before 1 1. 5 am on the day she received it, then it is doubtful she will reciprocate Elizabethan ‘gift' NY time in the future, as Emily has demonstrated she is unable to budget within her own economy. So, while reciprocation might have worked pre-colonization, it can be seen that in the present welfare economy, it is no longer a system of reciprocation, but rather a system of using and abusing one's kin because reciprocation is seen as a ‘right' and seemingly no l onger has to be ‘repaid', however the ‘shame' involved in not paying back (especially if the person has the means) has not changed (Schwab 2004: 6).The substance abuser, or the drunkard still have to be supported by their kin but hey are an economic threat to the household and possibly provide no means of return of the traditional arrangements of reciprocity while advocating that Indigenous people accept more responsibility so a sound economic base can be rebuilt for Aboriginal Communities. Both Elizabeth and Davit's self-protectionist attitudes seem to reflect the ‘modern' interpretation of reciprocity, that it is their kin's right to take', while sadly, they conceivably no longer expect them to repay in kind.Therefore the economy of this single household is skewed by having to support the immunity in general, instead of specifically their own family. In the past this would have been balanced out by equal trade-off, from Emily and Steve (or their immediate kin) bu t now days, due to issues such as alcoholism, homelessness, lack of education and substance abuse, true reciprocity is not as ubiquitous as it once was.A displaced sense of entitlement on the part of the taker' seems to be replacing the traditional sense of reciprocity and a certain wary counting of the cost seems to be reflected in the ‘giver's' calculus where the whole concept seems to be becoming a social burden Schwab 2004: 8). Indeed, Peterson (1993) in his article ‘Demand Sharing: Reciprocity and the Pressure for Generosity among Foragers' asks the question â€Å"Why is there a positive enjoyment to share if sharing is commonly by taking rather than giving? † (p. 861).When it comes to establishing the economic basis of a family, it becomes very difficult to measure their actual income due to people moving in and out of households, but Western society dictates that families meet eligibility criteria in order to qualify for welfare. The ideology of traditional reciprocity is not taken into account ND Schwab (1995: 16) suggests that politics, or policy makers ‘accommodate rather than contravene' these monetary instabilities and the ever changing family support arrangements. Western politics or law is generally not taken on board by Aboriginal society, or if it is, it is with reluctance and resentment.With this in mind, Schwab (2004: 2) wrote his discussion paper â€Å"The Calculus of Reciprocity' to further a ‘better understanding of the principles of reciprocity in contemporary Aboriginal communities' in the hope that it would better inform government policy makers, at a local, state and national level. There are two sets of politics (law) that the Aboriginal people must abide by. On the one hand there are the Politics and Law of Australia and then there are their own laws and politics as illustrated by The Dreaming, where explicit moral lessons transmit the ideology of didactic human behavior (Schwab 2004: 3).There is outra ge in Australia at the suggestion that certain individuals seek to impose elements of Shari law, but we turn a blind eye, or have a lack of understanding of Indigenous people carrying out their version of reciprocity when it comes to breaking their own laws. Some of the punishments imposed by Aboriginal Law include, death, spearing or other forms of corporal punishment (e. G. , burning the hair from the wrongdoer's body), individual ‘dueling with spears, boomerangs or fighting sticks, shaming, public ridicule, exclusion from the community or total exclusion (Australian Law Reform Commission ND: 1).The code of reciprocity controls the mutual rights and kinship obligations of the individual and encompasses the cultural norm of ‘payback for wrongdoing (Fryer-Smith, S 2002: 2. 18). As well as an understanding that reciprocity means the sharing of tools and food, there is also a oral principle of reciprocity with its negative forms encompassing retribution and revenge (Alkali and Johnson 1999, in Burbank 2006: 7). Burbank (2006: 7) stated that be killed, then reciprocity can be satisfied by the killing of another family member as due to the intricacies of kinship they are considered one and the same.This viewpoint would be considered barbaric in Western culture and would not be tolerated. As Edwards (2004: 73) states, the person who breaks the law must serve the sentence and for another person to pay the penalty would not be Justified or even permitted in Western law. In indigenous land management, the politics of reciprocity (between Western and Indigenous) should involve knowledge and understanding but the white Australian man tries to impose his vastly different practices onto the Aboriginals who have been practicing successful land management for millennia.Disappointingly much of the thousands of years of Indigenous knowledge are often disregarded by Whitefishes' (Baker, Davies, Young, 2001: 158). To illustrate the disparity of understanding of the principles of reciprocity in Colonial times, Edwards (2004: 73) outlines the anecdote where the Elder showed he settler a waterhole and then considered it a reciprocal action to later kill a sheep for food when the settler used the waterhole to water his flock.This Aboriginal would then be dealt with by the police and the courts and he would be mystified as he could see no Justice in a system such as this where reciprocity did not play a part. In his law, laid down by The Dreaming it would be sanctioned behavior to take the sheep as pay back for food for his clan. Western politics plays a part in the downfall of the concept of reciprocity, firstly by taking away the dignity of Indigenous people ho cannot reciprocate for their welfare payments in any quantifiable way.Secondly because life has so drastically changed for the indigenous people since Colonization, they now find themselves stripped of their place and their land and instead find themselves in the undignified position of be ing passive welfare recipients. So many have fallen by the wayside and become victims of alcohol and substance abuse due to their once well organized and purposeful life being ripped away. This has made them reliant on their relatives generosity, which leaves them no self-respect and minimal fiscal, physical or emotional resources to pay back with.Therefore the notion of reciprocity as a system of checks and balances to maintain social equilibrium (Bourne and Edwards, 1998, 100, p 106. In Fryer-Smith, S 2002: 2. 18) is stymied for some. Traditionally social stability has been maintained within the Aboriginal society because reciprocity has functioned as a means of equilibrium. Reciprocity has been important throughout all social and family relationships, where a complex system of kinship lines exists. This system relies heavily on the responsible and reciprocal participation of all members from the give-and-take of tools and hunting weapons, to the sharing of food.As one Elder expla ined: â€Å"Sharing Just a way of life for Aboriginal people, probably in our genes or something. Might be left over from the old days when we were hunters and that .. . All Aboriginal people know what it's like to be hungry. We Just can't turn away someone who says he's hungry †¦ I guess white people have a hard time understanding that one† (Schwab 1991: 145), whereas Western society is built on capitalism, meaning that some of its central values are totally opposed to the tradition view of Aboriginal culture (Richardson J 2006: 144). Moieties subtle and often invisible to some (Schwab 2004: 3). Indigenous societies place emphasis on social identity and the obligations individuals have to conform to the expectations their society has mapped out for them, whereas in Western societies the emphasis is on the individual and the rights and freedoms of that individual and there is no expectation that people will conform (Edwards, 2004: 52). Almost any behavior is accepted, as long as their actions do not harm others.Aboriginals believe there is a balance within ourselves that incorporates our social lives and our spiritual lives and to integrate ourselves into the ecology and consciousness of this oral, we need to intertwine these two worlds in our daily existence (Lower 1991 : 49). The requirement of reciprocity underpins most aspects of spiritual life, including ritual, ceremony and the protection of sacred sites (Fryer-Smith, S 2002: 2. 18). If one gives to the ancestor's by way of ceremony, song, ritual and dance they reciprocate by giving the strength, power and knowledge of the spirits (Lower 1991 P: 48).Likewise if one honors the earth, the earth will reciprocate with an abundant harvest. An Aboriginal had/has a responsibility to perform the rituals that released the creative rowers that abide in the land and if these rituals are not performed, great harm could befall the land. Even today, Aboriginal land management techniques rely on understandi ng the religious links between the Indigenous peoples and the land (Baker et al 2001: 113). Western society puts its faith in science and technology, while keeping an eye on the weather, to reap the finest harvest.They do not pray or perform religious services to interact with the land. Indigenous people believe the whole environment is formed by The Dreaming, there is a sense that all things partake in the sacredness of life. For millennia, Aboriginal people have co-existed with spiritual beings in their daily life. The essence of spirituality is present throughout the material world and through a cryptic sense of time; Aboriginal People seamlessly connect with the Dreaming origins of their spiritual being (Edwards 2004: 86).Aboriginal religion is bound up in The Dreaming and dictates that responsibility consists of acting in accordance with a few moral principles. For Aboriginal people, being deprived of their land means a â€Å"deprivation of access† to The Dreaming and th e severing of a certain life-force which breaks the link with The Dreaming. It is this very real deprivation that has broken the spirit of many an Aboriginal person, leaving them empty and heartsick (Triggering 1988: xv-xvii).Aboriginal people base their claim to ownership of the land on their belief that the spiritual forces which shaped the land also created them and still inhabit this land today (Edwards: 19). Rose (2004: 42) points out that earth is the initial mother, the mother of everything. She goes on to say that all knowledge and all living beings in their diversity are ultimately born of earth. Non-indigenous Australians often countryside the significance of the land to Aboriginal people; however The Aboriginal Land Rights and Native Title movements have increased awareness of this issue.As Rose (1987) says in her article â€Å"Consciousness and Responsibility in an Australian Aboriginal Religion†, if people protect the land by burning, using the country, performin g ceremonies to increase the bounty and by protecting the dangerous Dreaming sites so that no harm escapes, the land will repay them by reciprocal relationship that ensures the continuity of life for all involved, the land, humans, animals and the plant life (peg. 262). Partaking in this exchange of life will lead to balance for the land and its inhabitants. DRP.Pollinate in â€Å"Looking after our Spirit† (Pearce, M 2012) states that we have a duty of care to engage in reciprocity with the earth and to ensure that the environment we have inherited is left in the same, if not better condition, than when we got it. This is an ideal philosophy, but unfortunately the greed of many non-indigenous ventures such as mining for minerals and gas in many traditional lands has caused an imbalance and to the eyes of the Indigenous peoples, many landscapes are now out of balance and the aim of cooperation has been pillaged.Non-indigenous ventures plunder the land and they take, but they d o not reciprocate by giving anything back, although Western conservation laws are beginning to address this situation. As this essay has demonstrated, reciprocity is an economic means of survival and the Indigenous political system is built on the presumption of reciprocity, while the Australian Judicial system has been influenced by Aboriginal philosophy. Such documents as ‘Aboriginal Customary Laws and Sentencing, Aboriginal Customary Laws and the Notion of ‘Punishment† by the Australian Law Reform Commission, (ND) and theAboriginal Bench book for Western Australia Courts (2002) by Fryer Smith have been distributed to foster an understanding of the concept of reciprocity that Aboriginal life is founded on. Society is based on complex kinship lines where reciprocity is expected and accepted but is open to exploitation as demonstrated by those abusing the passive welfare system and who no longer honor the traditional social norms. A fulfilling spiritual life revolv es around maintaining relations with the Dreaming Spirits.

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